JFIF,,C    $.' ",#(7),01444'9=82<.342C  2!!22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222" }!1AQa"q2#BR$3br %&'()*456789:CDEFGHIJSTUVWXYZcdefghijstuvwxyz w!1AQaq"2B #3Rbr $4%&'()*56789:CDEFGHIJSTUVWXYZcdefghijstuvwxyz ?Sr?7D:N8,"[?xt}y4>Xe7 oO&^Kws}ΩMآ¹tܱ& U7db>[o?Sr}:>?PҖrS|uGq >KΩK.^7.z9忾ߝSA&Yj!p~E.iX.\Mߝ!oΩGS,t7L?uPjqN\S4}jH@Tby1w`.A>A=TڂiX 4}5O>ɢ\A?h'j>X {c9q2i3@>}i~}MR.IEiEZȧg!>TL`-i>}jsޛӰEϽ!$NqA4;T$ ;KiAsEn *[=Ȥ2=y4'i2 h;9hth'('}jH>h4~y5S<⎹,Z7gғ<-Q`-Unx@4yUIyhמH}T(z<zhX FysϵgϤϭVϥg4UIZyMW?'X/jsHOy.YϭV( BsUG,yi|zXϭh&f(Ϟi~zfGZzON> h=qѺ,֓>E! y3֫ўh<;֒ 硧yUez hEc*}kX}I\  Dx5dI9RfҊ3QPh擌R3N/0ޓhh4f4tw&MQ() ފ.bъ;QC1''ڎq@XRyQ.h@GG_ ixTԼb @yC9J`7F)@9t!<._hFM:r:sրJ(?&iH% KPސғޓ) NA8u74@.yE#z2E)=3փZ3H)s.!9qPΐQE/Fi bӭQڗ&yzCւhތF}h4X>j;}x3=;}ԮpzqQV 7<ғ4Ґ @J@qHFy.&xԝ1G~h 3iO&8ތ>~TP:;@AI@hwh(MwzAQҏ!G&h(Ru4fۥ!PxR1@ƚh4J8x4HM( Pi1@41҃IpcP=1Ríbc)h ֎ !J84bIas@sK=c'bF .O.yȠ!8Nh9&4K@2)@Ki8=isF9@PҌf?5xZAKH ;<F>\)@RF{tMa Cրõ'z.;jN):)ӭ.0/QҎ8cGK}ivJy 94b\f)48m!؏Ҕ/NZ1))qOހ3Ea8N ҁi\i@\f&fnHzzԄiEX !\N؎!E;aS.0)ܛ[8x!@@N):ұ 1 KS}(`u 'jSI@qG@CҌi;4P:RZQNQ@ A4{RP@@(ifN;ҎhRrF5.:` W+ޤ#q w&# }EHWx"i (;$fJqHzRʌ)}QGJLzcQ(GQJE4q9(4'08{ QҔsړRczRsI@!EPg]΀ڃEsQJ ?JFqڎ :LKHE 1;l`Sy4\vsJ)1ޞE! gNZQ@!iqc)qiϧ2ةqH; )vtr7m(;JWp/.~QEaqJ^jw^!s*KzS"ɕiJ84l$P(L6 N:Qrž)ʄx^~tJ@0JWEIsNhHvcۃҬmM7ahrBj}fG;@WgY *# 4ȔWw{Ey*S\c\ĮG*BSHwL͢2>ZB1RM>EbHV@- !Hzg(43H}(&w4`:ځJM'oz;ҁIQ@i:oZSҌ`QLRހ LR)jwjN &))((Ҁ)ڐ0GsҀiIM OZ /ZYsqOc06) J3E)nIh ! E C֓:bua$9HќuO΀4PhEAIzPs'^"GZSSGZR;P:K$=&z)yހ2zu)@&K4N=h0=~N(4.x=(M%/zå&3/#\~Tמa'zZp\ro. Nۖ4RCB✫N*Ƣ3⸤i\46`QW4v1KWW+i^8`rGZ^J&F8(s֤ (rqJ(ۀi3(W+M0{S֗nN}nZu9R yǡrH hP:TsґSdJr@9OTQN1O@(c" W9 *Nݹ++>mbl=@OR3IZS$AM2\J-FWVYr=0OXWn3HT~5W1q"+ zȧxLh׭I1M#&HF9oj9 a8i!Ji)3ژ:P+:AtњB}@ Qӥ)9Q@!8cb 9H(iqGAGZ^dPc4gP)E _j3ړ,_xg֡榋 NÚaR50U6JhR\яJ:i1R):;Ҋ1K @-  sGj1K!ьRhKE0K4ޢs@/:R'_z8''=Mހڗޔy_\@'g:P P84Ɣh4)@Z\Rɣ4i3KP =1HcO4UifI 4i\W~qJ娑ɧy/JF={Sy\ Rl,v)țjLs\~u7+o\qF=)xW/NۅS)D)(\uHxrJbS-Slpis S"i<}z!׃J(ݚ]>*ҁ)\QqzPaڦTqJ(m'iN1R;gM#Uۚv*M)RV"Aڤ(Hf7"D#ϭ*X#ۊxs0x3C'< \S(v9j#GOV*DejBF*'LyLeeGz9L>bGCL)զM¢d'*3q+4)FS.Za@~iJfQh.֡)Uc(QՃe3&}iZ7oFc&964$N{襤P Ah QڗOz\ў1@ Ҁ@֗PqH)qJ@&1IҝLwQ %-- xp)  QF1@恁=sIGjbKsQ{qZ$U9J^KށC;J}x撀 ӻSzQ(N}i943 h&:ђ 0 w9>Ȥzq1ib{RcҊ`/Zo֌Hь S C@ E-! A99@*OQ@z@sZ^h(4)%S"w? n1Ke3oJvͧ'MFrI4QU⹨Ӹ{Ӷ1oR"4ZjuB *Q! Rd0yո,b6)?f=JkN-2#OʸA=+'Qw'~^O=3Wќ9011SO1Hϵ!'0z O' pis1bҘVŎx9JAs=9dcܞj#ZFdEWe9jn;V3"j?+Swb̤νMWe [e=j/-Z&fʌQ2 U0PHf2D8g4})}i3GZv{!(qM@\NԄ{ӱ!i9}hjAE(ԙH'4SEBj1Ȩ'TH .8ԍQC֓i);<ҎE& F=4gL"R4w 8F($\)3pi84E!KG ϭcKFy@(A4) z:h)sf=:gNԬ(Ă9˟h@ h(4ϭ&3@=1E'aJhGR?ځ֔Ɯ7) ȽGn2/Cf@dqB SFEfټb.:Tʸ⚣j97Hwvj];#J" *Om{ՅȠS_)FJ~^Vv4V0HR\{v+Ҭ 4Ô4gK`p(P1j@Ehic^\eJSI]Fqx/>Q[U%e8.sVxQoO+D{rަ8ջ->K5åܹjƥe Iu9oHjHt^Nr*յ4ɵYRb~5fyC/nLĢD=7D2p+pV#(b"YHQ`=2ijnQktai5RvؤyE#hms[[xA-49j)mVSAz-P+y(ʛ]IYsx![A*V gRfKҫ_zqȪZEb\@+`wZt3zם_4XK޵RDtfFB8yyɴJWFc'њ>1TJ,Rp*#" <9W^yN' !UgAj_~;W"κMC-2axZGj\f0!=i ߚ 55u-5\M62m =3R cV_RNOSOn9 Q+[71ȨeqJ&\VTS){V[0zёQi&6GB۠MF! e\\ 1ȫN\Z ڲ`͆jف\YBjotsM˱etdk +|۟k}ÁB[5nb!Y:VŻ=j,d|)ع{ƈ5*Z 69KyB19& .&Vh4$[\hׄ}G8hL+`JVgrGV֓c uJ +Ggޗ]&cO4Kfu6hZ.#m7:c9U=<$*qR:֌8YErq*9Z`5Rl}k&dʻTmrg5zg֨}k 켓֭3UGlVdnυ9G9o4Ą#vhJ.\JRv8bwɬeU%r̜ҏKC1sڅ~U*£TRalzTUlL<u YXmhn_+櫼nE&ҙ\LXM2 "*J&VusR[sK2oE4Ȕ"TI^4[!4s\21v q^(k` 4ɥ]0)C(j֓qsZ\“q}(ZnyM4ԛu#ru:܁m9FV5~j![&܊3!TNjĜ&ɎMVL>՝ 3:U)y Ҟ6r 0SpxR'ZaSҁjy[֣9樁cގ(h#N4;uPyQ@)1Rz P:@ A>q EU߭e_ueÙA]PqL&I 7.TdU3rckWN)=PJqިpK&sQ"rGt.EL2G"\u" J%l.H!Cx:ngVWb2( ❚OŒ@.)(&iɤ\g⥱>e:\ܬnxd{/nykQD23T哮*yNMRS:"^j1*k) ?ʪq4T'ڷ3UwlԬ};([#g\S0F2"pj}EJJZdmS'9S;l`M'ژd4ҖT`)1;ҟ˜Q;P!4QN 1GZ:< ަI@ZRRԽh9BE/K(I@E-'z^9@sid@J==i{gߥ*T^i@uCR1=*zӏ@Àh8IR#4tР2h@ݸQi03C|gJ(sڒQI֌ZOZ) -8I3@ hNu4fP('+P4gڎJOƀ:ҏ'J(QJ))ƉҥCP/=jT8<3D\\V Ҳo ֱ:i4[ EЖ%1j}!8^Uy(U:j7.$¿LA˼ H.J_\jn&wcY)|gh"tS39Gs#="Y4GfQU5ҼzUֽjnP• Z{kӧ=NiRz B1P/x˜9\UN;jt^W+&SL5]7V\OXozS1n&m;Uf`=*SKF)-I".Lui&܊ÊAKk WUb_8RYLUiSrƥ䀊4#7SKۚάvT*7T#bcȔy=)!cv*Wª`` w5F5h7tjl7c&sLzQ#FxzGj:QiDLI?JL8Q3԰#PBZ=\B5k>T:SKu撨y# Q@b$z1iњLRi`3((1@i(iFx&1@ih4PqJ4ފ_!9)q@ >ރK@ FyP1F3ӚfI'9)ǽC☧3n?NpMI♜rhKN#)ӊ^Qڀ=>u@t#NiG'7&()z #SIր("7ր;2?52c P}qOc^FɌs֣q&۱Z#Ln{TLqq<+D$d֗<iF,i(8EQ J=h=hQ"Py&)(4⛞(hE(Gj(QIAbCJ:Qր=(^ qAK֐h"AIɠ3OF:eǨS߭D8jΓz9.xҎ(sMBў3IK(g'Z^ JC֖@\qIzR)3GZ(<@(4()A )@=K00tً恉Fx)~4<Ӊǥ XӁɦ@Q"U">*44QmB+f8qp˂0yzF+GֵV?yv\Y#_[2{׏[5slvqǚ7qT,ilWN5NgOKTR2)Fq#6 {NW"hb*3 T95^Gsҧd806KH\P榁gJzXJ:XMSY x hq{UB$k lo J< N1e]C N*d5\b ݹ\LՇxM4ӚkFW2{S218GU[r9aZQ*&sQDIj\UP)W NWU5ԼQҐ)AJN(iގ1@åh@R⒀up==zڌQ@Qj(zSO'4<zE z\CEL҃@ J3HM/j%8p=)g4wv `HzP3H3Fh})Z 4@i3KAbN@#8Mv(JJ\PJQM Z=38.h۞ԙ @ J<i9hq#LZ(cG )O^db "2YKڬB5Y p+𝱸RN6\odתHK >ry1hh_Z`Y-;\Z9*.oF j9ְoox~jF)݁th]m=OvIӪ#p'ql۱on[ Z4̞Muvc һ00;.&LB S#]>V8ɳQIs0Z,zu* +R£U|f#+Ϥӟ1V,HSrqVjrYtV+#&C!T8HasZaaʅ7rQ.f6Sf1Zs! TZqr,QI][E)#j-6Qa)Nt^ŕ( e[&ZhpM[0*<(`斓@ 4i{┎(BG?'⓵-q'#^ؤhqMӳHq>(Ґ@MZJޠ9M (;E ?vP@`=)EhAҗ8恎'zPrzI( @hOZ):i NjB)8Yȸ/>c,I޼_ól!< }.5'xM%;R$]8>Bt諅a_QZF]{ן(˖"y-j,{W{bgTּM!X_j滨aWd9`uַ{+Z6%dosV1Nt.jgwݴepOu5;+mg- o#`c婄]w$)qLQLA҃8@Iހ94E&hF33H@L4 ZBphq%)N@ )M/AIPBZms =4tQNS)LN4wOT =hc>zE'KNE7i)B7z199npǥB(N@ GiN@b) i4R4dzPwK 'ZN}(}"c4Hh8J:NhA➑p5JPƀ|SOGҔdPr)Ax O~bH(@=(ހ(OL9"!20 *AԴZ4f1HNL|w n%L'`:%lC8ų8#4ֹ$Vc\:zKfv^Nf ͚KGYnz̼b`Y$r3nN*Tʌ9jWnOiz̐k?dވN:5z9w~vGj;Rt44ufE8^3N7@#Tsu(朔" j>sEި4g);RP>hRPN1Ҙy9sI:ӆ6@ t#).[nڛ&(@F}h[֊h= Cˤ'AQ!U9 3U_uěr0+8RGrcl,\hjKHj9o ub#y?W.XOYۅ\=F9>ⰳ?ujڔu/ ~Y扎{V|64kȭsq5ќ9:4Zpȥb17뚽"[,>Zƍ++$CcK֫< N Jzs]*E'ECsP Za|b"vVuI-dzwX&V#P`9N'|"+8MqҘeNiFNu.+#֘DQe&.C .B/ZFRy8Hāڣf9>v1rGjGp>nq֚[I9 Oj2l$f+qR٦Tf1&Rv"J@iM1v 4!օzCGJCɣSG=1{Pz҃hzPqMR E -74h{RzR  i1Jh9pyP(O/"hԝq@z ;P֔u0ΗHcJ ^3p4CL9^M3ֆE9hr1KA֌hPzRwE.i) P0h&NqGZCOJpQQ 9nK)XCԠjjxl5-J*h"ڱI6I*75)#1@'^zT8Fdn).ZJnirLI tY\蛞N*fu5:avSN{N;VNHxH.v\ЦNA#=j1wa۵QӚLgS/41hY0ųTij_!л$aUdr3uSߡQXaFiKsU|2s,4Kz?Z=!j esPQ|Qʅ?qM2SwS7|X2BFFiʚc1Zi/?c45V3ri 3$X"BpHx&y;؄RPO4Up')3ڗp$^~)Nt4F3I4G҃HE@ jLJSPNFh4.q@R88Ƞx>  i(&y)z`44%^M'ZC@ sKIJ1ڀޖӻvzvFM0u3=MF>H,^j#֤Z>qI)AI\K&( d CJ 1IڗJ=֗i(#i3G'J.h=3@:S=9)@=6IZF q@ 'L{@i;ޔzPy=is%h,ln8ڛ\p?ZCiW4umvS1&4 \⁞zAiXw$~4~ji䡻S`j3ҔLsXT Z_*y楣XȜڞ[U*) +dj#S9j `ULR#z4tAiE'J{79<8X9-I5?nyTZ9Y7u4?z|^бPbdsLf SV5ߵ3 ~TsQ&~qNĹh=hG&z~4#4i84gZB({&i4c4JL R)ii@M9=˞j.#jT!{Rg:ci(9֎i pi z\zCE) PsG?%.2h  HzP!Nϵ&r(^EԝiH)4K0nMqP(E8F̅hi3@n==(ݑPɚ7R恀4@ ށJM 4 QHuF94NԢ/ =GL恉 q#wFy1vֆMqKޑC犑0j 3ҝ)XRwR}iYq#zjj a.x USJ>I3VoSVNsu9#'*j5+vp0<=h 5=)qZr&HI8{`RD[sR*2{SH2R#ni E&i؛Ff}) ; ㏭9M e4Ը"(ޓ6s/J9 8GZ\Pxg@v~Lv'=((3>v{0@81fYP0FR)H ޝ>Ϳ)1fuaiڜ=i$gvR:׽7ޗA2i1Z)zJ;b Q K ^yqɠi:s@$h=}h<ڀ1IҔ=TBI9=h)Ó,1Jb;)M)GJ,M%-!`g3!4dH P*vlj H[KFz9nj8Y1$VXc5I|֫8Hԁ8f9ӭn6g)䊋A\{7=iƙ@68sQ+)zgg4)G'fh4:ӻw杅q1LdSGZZ()E!h#-( .p)>J\P-744u<G>vA'JJv=K@M-%(F(@ ◚1hKCh4JzM84@/@(.g f; bQ`hwzzQ@ZJZR0q -h4 vF%&{Rhқ Q}Z zN2y xNJNI4sӊL4b(9=s@1E@ !8&9zғ ڊ(Ҏ{1#I@SK3It8@ ғ/Z@r(P۵ 9ۥ;6(A4>cҀ %!'=h}uMƞme&iJOZ̚t:(B"PzRhGj)9LSҒ(Hh}i3J8vsޓ y H:G<@4u})1B:PQP:PF:zG1^>zьIJpiKI@i;ۥӭ%.=(IڔP04O4c43@ ޓ>J;PKht4:Rtig&IKހAޗ)44g%Bi^-L=8Q){AȥɠBi) փIEJi3G~ԴJi)IȠMKGҀgQғ S{Rր'j3A<`P^֊Z@)0JruƨO|TQAHE-%hF3G"GFyҎ;c:H~srhiގdP4 'jqRzR4cqIK,? L~cA;H: ::JLf4s֗C) -% PqAJsNԙ#g4M'J_ŽRti!{A)s@('!P 'PsK;҃@8%--(:RR&q@y4qGhN9>7қp9& RbGzQI(hgQҐps@ ::g @8Fy4QI(98e+ f94֛@N3@IhKPF uꦀy;Qϥõ.:Rv C'Z\EQړb ^(֝GJ()i`A&ޓ8"n{ќS 3JAL(,*\I(;q)A'f(O) HczbӊqsMNȤ''&$:wPF}(sF(KL\`c&PH){t{Rb>%/j=hPuP4jBhZn)i8K1E'j:ⓥ.8h4P1('QKOƁGP(@ ڕy<*RXs 74@}iH%.rit@ ?J]Z\`w֓'C@ZqH9dh4J3^;L(J ;9; ozx^N? @9&{QޓN v!*f=*iMi}րRR^0s3@Kސ@1 Q)4t2w }Q:r'zPrx4Es(/ZNh@ i1F}q@HsJZ ACizьQ1◠(@iO=)(LsK)@zqJHӟZLb֘ iO^8HwJSJJ`h'K)1E=h 9h(<.r>NIԸ!RbKJi:`j:mb?/ Am. e +(5Lj{7dCS;g7xp殆LlM^p{,#^\άӦerkOLU˝JheUo:޶F.qcB@fnQze>vCi*EG8Tbj펕=T{sQܘҜ34 2}b/FrkgJIsMarUtd>mLrx~Ԍ蹅yic-Ѽg$FySƷt =7c# WA=bFt3b>xm{3Zy|c/{S$pAUGJq p7Jq]TevV F޺ E,߽#)֌4 XjuYK{:ݗ7I;ld.v\'>u-sr7;Snq6[J0AxkcZKɃX`]99FPQRihzAN:҅p3@ "”CbQڗ4cڐqJI97<'r)?(1'JZeIԸQԸHB4hQ֌'==)}i;P()hԙ恊OJ )9/R:1Aޖ1E>7QWv4iq"wힳEhm {!yއF1A.5E2Xg!NkttNj%YiyX'i;ʇbZD.n[Ǿk!'p|}ֱH6xNn._R; eo KG۵OtX˪O]E"&R$mnqt,1wt H}Z%kCJSn~>4 1@{=0&$[4]t*z lJɮn{e14 Z{ic'Z rahPyޮvS&hUYIS]V}ڪ*iJ]mrCbL9F{A7T$#HnAڎtә@zӺ=dTs-)]!Pi /N(+ )(4oʝ:Rn9i@!{1) .=i{P(/ziz;RzP? qF(Դ )>c=(4dR2sMhANI@K(:4^旮)')!ǭ4RM Ҏhӻ(qH4844?5\aL4?5TJn8O40J:=I Qڰc犑v2i]ƕÔf95( ނ#85) KFMV*0lڏj?.rWOp3Q6 zU'rl&;ӄyɦbȬha#h\'sWNR(E=Νf贿hoU/6.1IKP6eO26i,qZPMSêBCgY:tGG/ҕ&QؓQ4p㑚~]dpy\Q5׶1Qwo15U!XpCKč]R.Ҝ5Xb}}ԿΏBu,h6y>Z}]v`74qnVC-߆[qJ/ ',y`wZ'$jAmtgߌ֥LJ,®Ƨ>`]eqQ)VosHí+\xU$ǒqT³+a_zڇ[S4ٵ'~VykbD/r۪ݾ.V0H隉uX2AϽgM}A?Kn4ֈt{{*" sZS`%i^$隕:2J3F|[o "|з^ҷr~C7B xr`溕" . W*7 o \<-_>WkF@!5g)ahkREV<;QʜtMCTo1sjU}k_ W5(r*A|O&U꾥,5#V$J<%i/s/ mYT¶sOb8v\jkW{z[Y¶s{ö6Mk?R ɊrrZ6lFJNtᆍC%+2<J5RI:# sLBEW.Oefi[R۵6T+N'+US9|E%).W 1e:j7e{U}}$][nNkFZӒn[0vj&r2i^H\aUO-5 3[>kXiKHRYX66ӤKks[]J LԟhXmJ9JK^Y.v#hH \޺9ϖ|Wx=ֈɦVv$$V@25w3:;dkl܌O4*+˺`T]#'/fʺ4')6{U"J(hd0z >U]_Jơȯ4WqT;6m)ی=d]˞9%Zq,iGCW4e5 ٣%@FH6YT˴֌w kr}9'q9A_59Q.1[Vh֢nVtK9]TQ]"0I6߅C%괄НK']-! T1In0d=72M'XDRdy>pP0*qWꔗ2^t)ҡkyTaoCP=l,5.3Zl}޾ >rZn@G'AG`i.m1SJSRhSaJ(g~6C1o u=#j[CG#NA&|ݩS.!Mۆ}*?`S_ 8{I4%=)F(4^pyt`1pjjrө@ qdCM灑JtɂBchM/PV0ib)ަOkk(8j{kFk0WL/$1GE%Q=0S1hSP5č4!條' nm[-=e+k3xӄq=~b)K8.n㞴%t8΅bO*;gҞKOQJ3RPA:Q֏jp".HMK@:mlu F(~4lJSsG*rs3x.$Πa!U={8o>|ÊpF'/"az\Ng4^=%.q!?ϙY'/cXͦ%#FmFV%cz' l&sMF`sҩx9pJ5/h7S'qU3I^=w/61_Uj>tǰ:}KNh}BL{(Oke]Dna:.j#fabr_˂[lU0yq/o=_)?&樃ۚQGabr4y)ߚsGa:Yr)NRysy5=ܰnޠNwUz)G{i,}oROZsHx4{8m>s'M٤7zqKgܔy{>Qʻ ˹/ަM KM'iqM>rc4h4Y nhzSH44EJ\Ⓩz: vhri;Q 8|Ɛސ\y 1sL4H(\vN0i2qғ4P?!t 4q߃H ׵S@iiX(b9G4> 4ÏZ"3THJv)P)@iQ(ց Lh&3AE(ޔ B2())1h'&?NހRtP0EsGNh JyP84KҀ)1Ҏqu0zzRc';;)(@ ԀQNm hhi?(zҎGlQ @8)))h1c4惌Pi Rg'A@x>LQKABRB( ("%P1O)z NgP(Pڎ٢s@ c'J1@1F^sA PiM Ӛj2=c4g@y}i6A=("Խ)s@ j:P;vؤ c(袊?{Sڛ4Q@!REKQLP3҆Ɗ() (z(1G P!jzE=Learning to Contain Underground Nuclear Explosions
E-mailLearning to Contain Underground Nuclear Explosions
By Dr. Robert R. Brownlee - June 2002

Sometime in 1956 Dr. Alvin Graves, Division Leader of the Test Division at Los Alamos told me that we were going to have to test underground in order to reduce fallout as much as possible. He asked me to see what I could learn about it by making what calculations I could.

The temperatures and pressures generated by a nuclear explosion are such that there was considerable doubt that any underground test buried at a "reasonable" depth could be contained.

In 1956 we were severely limited in computing capabilities-compared to nowadays they were laughable, and miniscule, and arguably nonexistent. I had the equations of state of four materials. They were air and water, aluminum and uranium. As it happens, there is a lot of aluminum in NTS soil, so I called that "earth". I called that of uranium "fire", and the others were air and water, so with earth, air, fire and water, how could I fail?

In attempting to mock up the earth, I had some information about NTS soil densities and water content. I used a cylindrical pipe filled with air of several densities, depending upon the possible use of vacuums. I was allowed considerable freedom to choose other parameters as I wished. For example, what might the efficacy of plugs of various masses be, and where might they be placed for optimum results. I worked regularly with Bill Ogle, the deputy division leader, and we decided to have a first test in an "empty" pipe (cables were present), open at the top. Then we would do a test with a cap, and then do tests with plugs, the first one used to be in the middle of the hole, and the second one at the bottom. Thus we hoped to learn from test to test, acquiring data and information incrementally. Incidentally, the Pascal B test, and those immediately following, had a 4-foot diameter pipe. The cap welded to the top of Pascal B was four inches thick, so was of appreciable mass from a "man-handling" point of view.

The first test of our "series" was Pascal A, with results as documented.

For Pascal B, my calculations were designed to calculate the time and specifics of the shock wave as it reached the cap. I used yields both expected and exaggerated in my calculations, but significant ones. When I described my results to Bill Ogle, the conversation went something like this.

Ogle: "What time does the shock arrive at the top of the pipe?"
RRB: "Thirty one milliseconds."
Ogle: "And what happens?"
RRB: "The shock reflects back down the hole, but the pressures and temperatures are such that the welded cap is bound to come off the hole."
Ogle: "How fast does it go?"
RRB: "My calculations are irrelevant on this point. They are only valid in speaking of the shock reflection."
Ogle: "How fast did it go?"
RRB: "Those numbers are meaningless. I have only a vacuum above the cap. No air, no gravity, no real material strengths in the iron cap. Effectively the cap is just loose, traveling through meaningless space."
Ogle: And how fast is it going?"

This last question was more of a shout. Bill liked to have a direct answer to each one of his questions.
RRB: "Six times the escape velocity from the earth."

Bill was quite delighted with the answer, for he had never before heard a velocity given in terms of the escape velocity from the earth! There was much laughter, and the legend was now born, for Bill loved to report to anybody who cared to listen about Brownlee's units of velocity. He says the cap would escape the earth. (But of course we did not believe that would ever happen.)

The next obvious decision was made. We'll put a high-speed movie camera looking at the cap, and see if we can measure the departure velocity.

In the event, the cap appeared above the hole in one frame only, so there was no direct velocity measurement. A lower limit could be calculated by considering the time between frames (and I don't remember what that was), but my summary of the situation was that when last seen, it was "going like a bat!!"

As usual, the facts never can catch up with the legend, so I am occasionally credited with launching a "man-hole cover" into space, and I am also vilified for being so stupid as not to understand masses and aerodynamics, etc, etc, and border on being a criminal for making such a claim.

I'll add that we learned a lot with our series of low-yield tests. Plugs helped, but the closer to the nuclear device, the better. "Tamping" the device is better yet, and there are some ways to do that which are more clever than others. Mostly we learned that even an empty hole could cause a reduction to the atmosphere of as much as 90 percent, depending on specific design parameters. Later we were to see that if the hole is deep enough and the yield is high enough, an empty hole will close completely, allowing nothing whatsoever out except the initial light, which is not radioactive of course. In time, the tests became very sophisticated-and expensive, but we were able to achieve complete containment for almost every test, and for all but a handful of those that had containment "failures", nothing was detected off site. So I would judge our containment efforts to be quite successful. The case for these views are pretty well laid out in the book Caging the Dragon, by Carothers.

But it took time and money!


Special Thanks to The Nuclear Weapon Archive